|
艾滋病与灵长类动物的关系
2011-5-18 39健康网社区
1999年9月，一本关于艾滋病起源的书把原本就不平静的医学界弄得沸反盈天，热闹非凡。因为这本书提出了如今人们健康和生命的头号瘟疫———艾滋病的传播问题。这本书叫做《河源：追溯艾滋病病毒和艾滋病的起源》，是一名叫做爱德华特·胡珀的记者写的一本调查或纪实报告。作者根据一些历史事件提出了艾滋病最早爆发大流行的途径是因人们使用脊髓灰质炎疫苗引起，因为这种疫苗受到了艾滋病病毒的污染。
■不能证明黑猩猩或黑白眉猴的肾曾被用来制作过疫苗
如果认为胡珀的书只是一种哗众取宠或文学性的消遣文字，不会有什么人当真的。但不幸的是生物医学界不知不觉地牵涉并卷入其中，从一段纪实文学变成了一场学术大争论。而这场争论的规模之大丝毫不亚于20世纪80年代末、90年代初法国和美国争夺艾滋病病毒发现权的旷世之争。
现在众所周知，HIV-1来自于非洲黑猩猩，而HIV-2来自于非洲黑白眉猴。但是研究人员对于艾滋病病毒是怎样越过种属屏障(即从猴、猩猩到人)这个问题却有较大的争论。胡珀的书也未对此作出明确的解释，但是该书提供了一个证据，黑猩猩和黑白眉猴的肾曾被用来产生一种叫做脊髓灰质炎的疫苗，只是这个制作疫苗的记录已无法找到。由此胡珀推论，是在医学研究人员用黑猩猩或猴的肾细胞作OPV时，后者被猩猩或猴体内的艾滋病病毒所污染使HIV广泛传播。当时世界卫生组织以非洲为主战场，旨在尽早消灭发展中国家的传染病，而脊髓灰质炎是首选目标。
美国科学家、霍华得·休斯医学研究所的比阿特丽斯·哈恩则认为，有相当多的证据证明艾滋病出现得更早，但不会是OPV引起大规模传播的。艾滋病是在打猎、屠宰和吃未煮熟的肉食时通过受感染的动物血液经皮肤和黏膜传染给人的。而污染针头是导致艾滋病病毒迅速在人群中传播的原因。哈恩认为胡珀只是提出了一个假说，但是不能证明黑猩猩或黑白眉猴的肾曾被用来制作过疫苗。另外事实上在野猴身上还有几十种类似HIV的病毒，如果HIV从黑猩猩到猴子的自然转移发生了，也不会没有理由不再次发生这种转移。
对OPV-HIV假说甚为不满而且持激烈否定态度的要数美国威斯塔研究所从事过研制脊髓灰质炎疫苗的希拉里·科普罗斯基。他说，如果按照胡珀的观点，是脊髓灰质炎疫苗引起艾滋病传播的话，那就太具讽刺意味了，因为当时世界卫生组织正在制造疫苗以作最后的冲刺，在全球消灭脊髓灰质炎。如果相信胡珀之说，那他和其他研制疫苗的研究人员岂不就成了魔鬼。胡珀的书只是建立在他的偏见之上，并不是事实。胡珀必须以事实和证据来说话。
■研究人员在样本中发现了短尾猴的肾脏细胞。但是短尾猴并不能被SIV或HIV感染
为了求解胡珀假说的真伪，科学家趋向于用实验来说话。而要证实用动物的肾产生疫苗就只有靠巴克的冰箱才能解决问题了。
自从1992年以来世界上剩余的一种脊髓灰质炎口服疫苗(OPV)被用于非洲数百万儿童进行接种，以预防脊髓灰质炎(小儿麻痹症)。这些疫苗是贮藏在一个冰箱里的，而这个冰箱又被保存在美国费城威斯塔研究所的另一个大冰箱内。只有该所所长克雷顿·巴克才有这些冰箱的钥匙。正是这些脊髓灰质炎疫苗在今天被怀疑引起了艾滋病的大传播，因为这些疫苗就是在20世纪50年代生产的。
根据实验要求，巴克必须打开冰箱把OPV样品分送到三个独立的实验室去检测，以证明这些疫苗是否含有任何被HIV或HIV前体所感染的证据。巴克表示，为了避免媒体的压力，这三间实验室目前都暂时保密，以保证研究的双盲性。也即是说各个实验室都不知道其他实验室在做什么，这样才能保证研究结果的客观性。与此同时，世界上一个顶尖级的线粒体DNA分析实验室也在致力于鉴别出用于生产OPV的灵长目动物。
2000年2月威斯塔研究所宣布，他们找到了当年生产的疫苗样本。接着，该研究所请英国、法国、德国的同行对样本进行了分析。结果，没有发现任何黑猩猩或是HIV的踪迹。在随后进行的第二次分析中，研究人员在样本中发现了短尾猴的肾脏细胞。但是短尾猴并不能被SIV或HIV感染。
2000年9月德国莱比锡的马克斯·普兰克研究所和世界上首次分离出艾滋病病毒的法国巴斯德研究所在伦敦皇家学会的一次会议上指出，他们通过实验分别得出结论：疫苗说是毫无根据的。但是，饶有意味的是，这一结论并没有动摇“疫苗说”的始作俑者———爱德华特·胡珀坚持自己说法的信心。
■在这位生活在非洲班图部落的男性体内所发现的艾滋病毒是目前在全世界传播的艾滋病毒亚型的祖先，即HIV-1剩下的问题是，科学界公认引发艾滋病的HIV病毒最初是存在于中非西部的大猩猩身上，只是不知道是何时以何种方式传播给人类的。而普遍的推测是，猎人在非洲追捕大猩猩时，被携带有HIV病毒的猩猩抓破了皮肤;或者是猎人在宰杀大猩猩时不小心划破了手指而被HIV感染。
目前，研究人员手中握有被HIV感染的人类早期标本一共有三个。它们是1959年收集的一位生活在刚果民主共和国的成年男性的血浆，1969年收集的在美国圣·路易斯死亡的一位非洲后裔的人体组织标本，还有一位是1976年死亡的挪威海员的人体组织标本。
对此美国著名华裔科学家何大一的研究小组得出了一个结论。1998年，何大一领导的阿伦·戴蒙艾滋病研究中心对1959年采集的血浆标本进行了研究分析。他们认为，在这位生活在非洲班图部落的男性体内所发现的艾滋病毒是目前在全世界传播的艾滋病毒亚型的祖先，即HIV-1。从它的进化程度来推断，HIV感染人类的时间应当是在1959年以前不太长的一段时间内。大约是在40年代或者是50年代初期。
此后，2000年1月，美国洛斯阿拉莫斯国家实验室的贝特·科伯(BetteKor-ber)博士通过收集各种数据，建立一个复杂的数学模型，然后由计算机模拟HIV的进化过程。他得出结论说，HIV-1是在1910年~1930年间进入人体的。地点是西部非洲。他认为自己所下结论的时间误差为20年。
那么，1986年蒙特尼尔等人从西非艾滋病患者体内分离出的HIV-2又是从什么年代进入人体的呢?比利时生物学家范达美(Anne-MiekeVandamme)对从几内亚比绍的一个小镇坎丘果(Canchungo)上采集的HIV-2感染者的样本进行分析，并与当地黑白眉猴的SIV(猴免疫缺陷病毒)进行比较，得出结论说HIV-2是先后于1940年和1945年感染人体的。其中，HIV-2A于1940年前后从黑白眉猴传到人，而HIV-2B则于1945年前后从黑白眉猴传到人。
范达美这个发表于2003年5月12日美国科学院院刊的研究还指出，由于历史上的战争、奴隶贸易等，使得输血、性交易甚行，从而使得HIV-2得到广泛传播，比如1966年，几内亚比绍就出现了第一例因输血而染上HIV-2的病例。而且，几内亚比绍的独立战争(1963年~1974年)与HIV-2的开始流行有着时间上的一致性。
■人类也许在猎食黑猩猩的过程中感染了SIV病毒，这种病毒最终演化成了目前在全球流行的HIV-1
那么，究竟HIV是怎样从灵长类动物身上进化再到人体的呢?2003年6月13日，美国研究人员在《科学》杂志发表题为《黑猩猩SIV病毒的混合起源》的文章，认为HIV-1的前身是黑猩猩体内的一种猴免疫缺陷病毒(SIV)，而SIV则可能是不同猴子体内的另外两种SIV病毒重组后的产物。非洲多种猴子体内都携有不同的SIV病毒。美国、英国和法国的科学家们在研究中将这些病毒与黑猩猩体内的SIV病毒进行了基因组比较分析，结果发现，作为人类艾滋病病毒前身的SIV病毒，很可能是由红冠白脸猴和大斑鼻猴体内的两种SIV病毒重组而成。
研究人员推测说，黑猩猩应该是通过捕食红冠白脸猴和大斑鼻猴而分别感染了两种SIV病毒。这两种病毒很可能在黑猩猩体内发生重组，产生了新的SIV病毒。人类也许在猎食黑猩猩的过程中感染了SIV病毒，这种病毒最终演化成了目前在全球流行的HIV-1。他们同时认为，HIV-2可能直接来源于西非一种猴子身上的SIV病毒，而没有经过黑猩猩这一环节。
但愿这是HIV来源的最后解释，只是有许多细节还值得推敲。
艾滋病不治会早死，早治才康复 艾滋病不治会早死，早治才康复 艾滋病不治会早死，早治才康复 艾滋病不治会早死，早治才康复
 |
| 图示∶2011年5月正式出版的《中国特色医疗金鉴》登载的刘君主任及其机构事迹 |
| |
|
|
The relationship between AIDS and primates
2011-5-1839 Community Health Network
September 1999, a book about the origins of AIDS, the medical profession had not confused boiling calm anti-surplus days, great excitement. Because this book presents a human health and life are now the number one problem of the plague --- the spread of AIDS. The book is called "Heyuan: trace the origin of HIV and AIDS", is a journalist named Edward Hooper special wrote a report on the survey or the documentary. Made based on some historical events of the AIDS pandemic outbreak first way is caused by people using the polio vaccine because the vaccine was contaminated with the AIDS virus.
■ can not prove that chimpanzees monkey kidney or black and white eyebrows had been used to make vaccines
If you think Hooper's book is just a sensational literary pastime or text, not what people take it seriously. Unfortunately, however unwittingly involved in the biomedical field and involved, a documentary from the academic literature is becoming a big debate. The scale of this controversy no less than the 20th century, late 80s, early 90s, France and the United States compete for the right of HIV found in the enduring struggle.
Now we all know, HIV-1 from chimpanzees and HIV-2 from the African monkey black and white eyebrows. But the researchers how the AIDS virus across the species barrier (from monkeys, apes to humans) there is a larger debate the issue. Hooper's book also does not give clear explanations for this, but the book provides an evidence of chimpanzees and black and white eyebrow monkey kidney was used to produce a polio vaccine called, but the record has not produced the vaccine found. Hooper this inference is to use chimpanzees in medical research personnel, or for OPV monkey kidney cells, the latter being apes or monkeys, contaminated with the AIDS virus to spread HIV. World Health Organization was the main battleground of Africa, aimed at early elimination of infectious diseases in developing countries, while polio is the preferred target.
American scientist, Howard Hughes Medical Institute Beatrice Hahn believes that there is considerable evidence that AIDS appeared much earlier, but would not cause large-scale spread of OPV. AIDS is the hunting, slaughtering and eating undercooked meat of infected animals, through the blood through the skin and mucous membranes to humans. The contaminated needles that causes AIDS virus has quickly spread in the population causes. Hahn proposed that Hooper is just a hypothesis, but can not prove that chimpanzees, monkey kidney or black and white eyebrows have been used to make vaccines. Also who in fact there are dozens of similar Yehou HIV virus, HIV from chimpanzees to monkeys if the natural shift occurs, it will not happen again, no reason not to transfer.
Of the OPV-HIV hypothesis holds very strong negative attitude and resentment to the number of U.S. Wistar Institute engaged in the development of polio vaccine Hillary science Rawski. He said, according to Hooper's view, is the spread of polio vaccine that causes AIDS, then it was too ironic, because when the World Health Organization is making the vaccine for the final sprint in the global eradication of polio. If you believe that Hooper is said that he and other researchers developed the vaccine it not to become the devil. Hooper's book is built on top of his prejudice, not fact. Hooper must be based on facts and evidence speak for themselves.
■ The researchers found the macaques in the samples of kidney cells. But the macaque SIV or HIV infection can not be
In order to solve the authenticity of Hooper hypothesis, scientists tend to speak with the experiment. And to prove the kidneys of animal vaccines to the refrigerator only by Buck to solve the problem.
Since 1992, the world's remaining polio oral vaccine A (OPV) is used in Africa millions of children vaccinated to prevent poliomyelitis (polio). These vaccines are stored in a refrigerator, and the refrigerator has been saved Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, another large refrigerator. Only Buck Clayton, director of the only key to the refrigerator. It is these today, suspected polio vaccine caused a large spread of AIDS, because these vaccines are produced in the 20th century, the age of 50.
According to the experimental requirements, Buck must open the refrigerator to OPV samples distributed to three independent laboratories to test to prove whether these vaccines contain any HIV or HIV infection before the body of the evidence. Barker said that in order to avoid media pressure, the three laboratories are currently being kept confidential to ensure double-blind study of. In other words the various laboratories did not know what the other laboratory, so as to ensure the objectivity of research results. At the same time, one of the world's top-level analysis of mitochondrial DNA are also committed to identify the laboratory for the production of OPV primates.
February 2000 Wistar Institute announced that they found the current production of the vaccine samples. Then, the Institute requested the United Kingdom, France, Germany, colleagues of the samples were analyzed. The results found no traces of HIV or chimpanzee. In the ensuing second analysis, the researchers found the macaques in the sample of kidney cells. But the macaque SIV or HIV infection can not be.
September 2000, Germany's Max Planck Institute in Leipzig and the world, the AIDS virus was first isolated from the Pasteur Institute in France, the Royal Society in London, a meeting that they were concluded through experiments: the vaccine is unfounded. However, interesting to suggest that this conclusion is not shaken, "said the vaccine," the initiator --- Edward Hooper stick to their statement of special confidence.
■ In the African Bantu tribe living in the men found the body of HIV is spread in the world of the ancestors of HIV subtypes, namely HIV-1 remaining question is, the scientific community recognized the HIV virus that causes AIDS originally present in the western gorillas in Central Africa, just do not know how and when transmitted to humans. The general speculation is that hunters hunt gorillas in Africa when he was carrying the HIV virus in chimpanzees scratch the skin; or gorilla hunters killed accidentally cut his finger while being HIV infected.
Currently, the researchers hold the hands of early man was HIV infected samples, a total of three. They are living in 1959, a collection of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, adult male plasma, collected in 1969, died in St. Louis, a human tissue samples of African descent, as well as the 1976 death of a Norwegian seaman human tissue specimens.
This well-known Chinese scientist David Ho of the U.S. team reached a conclusion. In 1998, David Ho led Elundaimeng AIDS Research Center in 1959, plasma samples were collected from research and analysis. They believe that in the Bantu tribe living in Africa, men found the body of HIV is spread in the world of the ancestors of HIV subtypes, namely HIV-1. From its evolution to infer the extent, HIV infection should be in human time is not long before 1959, a period of time. About 40 or 50 years early.
Subsequently, in January 2000, Los Alamos National Laboratory Beit Korber (BetteKor-ber), Dr. by collecting various data, a complicated mathematical model, and then by computer simulation of the evolution of HIV. He concluded that, HIV-1 is between 1910 and 1930 enter the body. Location is West Africa. He considered himself the time to conclude the error for 20 years.
Then, in 1986, Monte Neil and others from the West African AIDS patients is isolated from HIV-2 is what it's into the human body? Belgian biologist Van Damme (Anne-MiekeVandamme), a small town of Canton from Guinea-Bissau Qiu fruit (Canchungo) on the acquisition of HIV-2 infected samples for analysis, and with the local black and white eyebrow monkey SIV (simian immunodeficiency virus) were compared and concluded that HIV-2 is successively in 1940 and 1945 infected with the human body. One, HIV-2A in 1940 passed from black and white monkey brow, while the HIV-2B is around 1945 spread to people from black and white monkey eyebrow.
Van Damme in this published in May 12, 2003 American Academy of Sciences study also pointed out that because the history of the war, the slave trade, making the blood transfusion, the sex trade and even the line, making HIV-2 was widely disseminated, such as 1966, Guinea-Bissau, there have been infected through blood transfusion, the first cases of HIV-2 cases. Moreover, Guinea-Bissau's war of independence (1963 to 1974) and the beginning of the epidemic HIV-2 has a time consistency.
■ human Perhaps the process of hunting chimpanzees infected with SIV viruses, which eventually evolved into the current global epidemic of HIV-1
So, what how HIV evolved from primates and then humans do? June 13, 2003, the U.S. researchers in "Science" magazine published an article entitled "Origin of chimpanzee SIV hybrid virus," the article, that the HIV -1 is the predecessor of the body of a chimpanzee simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), the SIV may be different from the other two monkeys after SIV recombinant virus product. African monkeys are carrying a variety of different SIV virus. United States, Britain and France, scientists will study the virus in the body with the chimpanzee SIV virus genome comparative analysis found that the human AIDS virus as a predecessor of the SIV virus, probably from the red crown white face monkeys and big spot Nasal two monkeys from SIV recombinant virus.
The researchers speculated that chimpanzees should be through predation of red crown white face monkeys and big spot nosed monkeys and two were infected with SIV virus. The two viruses are likely to occur in chimpanzees restructuring, resulting in a new SIV virus. Perhaps humans hunt chimpanzees infected with SIV during the virus that eventually evolved into the current global epidemic of HIV-1. They also believe that, HIV-2 may be directly derived from SIV monkeys in West Africa a virus, but this link has not been chimpanzees.
I hope this is the final interpretation of the source of HIV, but there are many details still worthy of scrutiny.
|
